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Table 2 Predictions and statistical tests for effects of low-dose radiation on pale grass blue butterflies (Hiyama et al. [10])

From: Low-dose radiation, scientific scrutiny, and requirements for demonstrating effects

Analyses

Expectations

Findings

Color patterns specific for radiation

If radiation is a unique environmental stressor, we should expect specific effects of radiation

Color patterns were specific for radiation, and differed from those caused by temperature and crosses between siblings

Temporal variation predating the accident

If radiation is the causative agent for abnormalities, there should be fewer abnormalities from Fukushima before the accident

Lower frequency of abnormalities at Fukushima before than after the accident

Heritability of minor morphological abnormalities

If the abnormalities are caused by germline mutations, we should expect these to be transferred to the next generation

Offspring resembled their parents with respect to abnormalities in random crosses

Mutation accumulation

If mutations accumulate over time, there should be an increase in the frequency of abnormalities from first over second to third generation

Increase in frequency of abnormalities across generations

Positive controls

Controls reared in the laboratory, but not exposed to radiation should resemble animals from control areas with respect to abnormalities

Similar frequency of abnormalities in positive controls and animals from uncontaminated areas