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Fig. 5 | BMC Biology

Fig. 5

From: Mapping the past, present and future research landscape of paternal effects

Fig. 5

Six useful considerations for paternal effect research. a To assess the adaptiveness of paternal effects, measure offspring traits relevant for paternal exposure and, optimally, expose some offspring to the same factor as the father. If possible, study offspring fitness traits. For the best outcomes, include cues that allow prediction of the offspring environment by the fathers. b To measure the relative strength of paternal vs. maternal effects, expose female to the same factor as male. Do not mate the parents only within the experimental group (red indicates the design to be avoided). Pair-up exposed parents with control partners to compare maternal and paternal effects. Use North Carolina II design to assess the synergistic effects of both parents. c To estimate maternal-mediated effects due to females’ perception, assess female preference for the male and/or maternal behaviour in relation to paternal treatment. Use embryo transfer and offspring cross-fostering. To eliminate effects due to female perception, use in vitro fertilization and artificial insemination. Study species with external fertilization. d Allow mate choice, if interested in ultimate aspects of paternal effects. Reduce mate choice, if searching for proximate mechanisms. Add experimental groups to understand the consequences of a particular mating set-up. e To reduce maternal-mediated effects due to male semen-borne substances, use vasectomized males, helping identify the proximate mechanism of paternal effects. One could also use telegony approach. To separate female-mediated effects (via male substances and female perception), use species with external fertilization. f Use highly related males to reduce unexplained variation and facilitate identification of proximate mechanisms of paternal effects. To obtain robust results, use heterogeneous, randomized sample of males. Using males in a paired-sample design could often be a convenient and powerful option

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