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Fig. 2 | BMC Biology

Fig. 2

From: Plasma membrane integrity: implications for health and disease

Fig. 2

Five major sources of plasma membrane damage. These sources of damage can be highly overlapping as one type of membrane injury can lead to another. (a) Cells experience mechanical stress from physiological events (e.g., locomotion), cell migration, and through interactions with inert substances in the local environment, all of which elicit membrane damage in the form of nanoruptures and tears. (b) Reactive oxygen species present in the extracellular environment or those generated from irradiation can promote lipid peroxidation. Additional sources of chemical disruptions include amphipathic molecules (e.g., NSAIDs and alcohol), which can compromise membrane integrity either through direct interactions or indirectly via oxidative stress. (c) Microbial species employ several strategies to induce plasma membrane damage. Virulence factors can inflict chemical disruptions (e.g., phospholipases) and physical breaches (e.g., pore-forming toxins); meanwhile, larger species can also exert brute force to damage host plasma membrane. (d) Immune cells elicit membrane damage, namely through pore-forming proteins and antimicrobials, under several unique contexts such as immune surveillance and neutrophil extracellular traps. (e) Intracellular sources of plasma membrane damage include oxidative stress, which can entice lipid peroxidation, and the leakage of cytotoxic enzymes from lysosomes. In the context of cell death, many pathways employ pore-induced damage (e.g., necroptosis, secondary necrosis, pyroptosis) whereas others are characterized by chemical disruptions (e.g., ferroptosis)

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