Fig. 5

Orchard plots [54] for the A overall effect size and B–H categorical moderator effects for mean reproductive investment responses to an immune challenge. Positive lnRR indicates increased reproductive investment in the treatment group. Each plot includes the mean effect size (open circle), 95% confidence interval (thick error bars around the mean effect size), 95% prediction interval (thin error bars), and the distribution of individual effect sizes (with the size of the points corresponding to their precision). X axes were truncated at − 1 and 1 to improve the visibility of the summary plots (i.e. mean point estimates, confidence intervals, and prediction intervals). See supplementary figure S2 (Additional file 3) for untruncated versions of the plots