Fig. 1

Genetic diversity among Hmong-Mien-speaking (HM) subpopulations. a The hierarchical genetic coordinates of HM speakers by PCA in the context of East Asia. The north–south population is divided by the geographical boundary, along the Qinling Mountains—Huai River line. b Linear fitting between PC1 and latitude. The red dots mean HM groups. The regression lines fitted using all the groups in the PCA. The blue shadow is a 95% confidence interval. c Linear fitting between PC2 and longitude. d The ancestral component inference of the HM speakers by ADMIXTURE software. e Paternal genetic model and divergence time estimation of HM population by Y chromosome O-M7 haplogroup. f The genealogy tree of the HM language family was constructed by the distance matrix generated by the comparison of basic words