Fig. 1

Harmonia axyridis mtCOI haplotype phylogeny and distribution across its native and non-native regions. a Haplotype network of H. axyridis populations across the world, inferred using median-joining algorithm and colored by geography. b Phylogenetic tree of H. axyridis mtCOI haplotypes using neighbor-joining method, with the grey circles representing the bootstrap value, the polymorphic nucleotide positions of 22 haplotypes were shown in Table S1. c Global distribution of H. axyridis mtCOI haplotypes, with the country names in red representing a total of 566 mtCOI gene sequences downloaded from NCBI database including non-native regions of Germany (42 sequences, 658 bp), Canada (331 sequences, 563 bp), USA (61 sequences, 566 bp), Italy (20 sequences, 566 bp), and the UK (34 sequences, 566 bp), as well as native regions of Russia (58 sequences, 566 bp) and Japan (20 sequences, 566 bp)